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    • Benjamin Franklin

    jueves, 7 de abril de 2011

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    America had hard times in their way to be independent from the British. They were fighting for their freedom and happiness. They wanted to have freedom so badly that they were giving their lives for it. The sense of unity and never wanting to give up are some of the factors that help them achieve their goals. America had very capable men that help with the process. Some of the men that help were George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin. All of these men have something in common they all had a crucial job in the United States independence process. Benjamin Franklin was a special key to open the door of their freedom.

    Benjamin Franklin was born on January 17, 1706. His family lived in Boston, Massachusetts. His father's name was Josiah and his mother's name was Abiah. Ben was their eighth child. Ben knew a lot about growing up in a big family, he had nine brothers and seven sisters. Ben's father, Josiah, worked as a candle and soap. Josiah had plans for Ben to enter the clergy, so he sent him to the Grammar School. Soon, Josiah changed his mind about Ben and took him out of school. Ben began to work in Josiah's candle and soap business. Josiah then decided that Ben could learn the printing business. At age twelve, Ben became an apprentice in his brother James' printing office. Even as a boy, Ben Franklin loved to read and write.

    He was too poor to attend formal school. We can say he educated himself. He liked to read and use science and the scientific method to improve people’s lives. He became a scholar, fluent in French, Italian, and Spanish, and also studied Latin. Ben had a common-law marriage with Deborah Read. Franklin and Read had two children. Franklin also had an illegitimate son, William, whom Deborah raised in the family home. Ben received recognition from colleges and universities late in life. He was awarded an honorary M.A. from Harvard and Yale. Franklin was also elected as a fellow to the Royal Society. During his life, Franklin spent time in Philadelphia, England, and France. Benjamin Franklin also helped the colonists. He helped stopping the Stamp Act by telling the British that the Americans would never pay the taxes. Later he joined the Continental Congress to decide what to do about war with England. In 1776, he helped write the Declaration of Independence During the American Revolution, he convinced the French to help the Americans. Franklin helped write the Constitution of the United States which were the laws for the new country, and he signed four of the most important documents in the new country's history. These documents were the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, the Treaty of Alliance with France, and the Treaty of Paris in 1783.
     

    Ben made important discoveries and advancements in science. Everyone knows the story of Ben's famous kite flight; he discovered electricity with it. He invented the lightning rod which protects buildings and ships from lightning damage. He invented the bifocals because he was tired of taking off his lenses every time after he read. Ben invented the odometer which he used in his carriage to measure the routes of mailing.  He invented of an iron furnace stove that allowed people to warm their homes less dangerously and with less wood. The furnace stove that he invented is called a Franklin stove. He inspired other famous inventors, like Thomas A. Edison and Alexander Graham Bell that follow his footsteps by trying to find ways to help people live better.


    In conclusion, the name of Benjamin Franklin will live on forever in the United States history. Ben helped the Americans with the revolution process in very hard parts of it. He improved the world anyway he could. Ben was a very intelligent man that was willing to help his country in every way he could. He had a very illustrated perception of the people needed to make their lives easier. Ben’s ability to invent new and useful things was amazing. He used his self-taught mental intelligence to explore the world and to develop possible answers for problems that had long caused intrigue in mankind.

    The Revolution Impacts Society

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    The Native Americans were stunned when the British abandoned them. The Treaty of Paris left apart the Indians.The Americans made  two treaties with the the indians called Fort Stanwix in 1784 and Hopewell in 1785.The purpose of the conference was to adjust the boundary line between Indian lands and British colonial settlements set forth in the Royal Proclamation of 1763.

    Another impact in society was that women gain few rights. They found new respect and were called the Republican Mothers. Abigail Adams, wife of John Adams wrote a letter to her husband reminding him the rights of women. He ignored her.African-American soldiers did enjoy the few things white people took for granted but other than that they only continued to serve as a slave. Some slaves managed to escape the during the confusion and chaos of the war and act as a freed slave without being caught and some went out to help others. Slavery continued after the war despite the efforts of African-American soldiers.


      Some slaves sued their owners on court.Slavery continued after the war despite the efforts of African-American soldiers. Although slavery didn't undergo any major changes  the war inspired many African Americans . A group called the "Quakers" formed to help free a small percentage of slaves.
    Inspired by the natural rights philosophy of the Revolution, free blacks agitated against slavery. They petitioned Congress to end the slave trade and state legislatures to abolish slavery. They repeatedly pointed out the contradiction between American ideals of liberty and equality and the base reality of slavery.
    The Revolution had contradictory consequences for slavery. In the South, slavery became more entrenched. In the North, every state freed slaves as a result of court decisions or the enactment of gradual emancipation schemes. Yet even in the North, there was strong resistance to emancipation and freeing of slaves was accompanied by the emergence of a virulent form of racial prejudice.

    Although a clear majority of African Americans remained in bondage, the growth of free black communities in America was greatly fostered by the War for American Independence. Revolutionary sentiments led to the banning of the importation of slaves in 1807.
    Slavery did not end overnight in America. Before any meaningful reform could happen, people needed to recognize that the economic benefit was vastly overshadowed by the overwhelming repugnance, immorality, and inhumanity of slavery.

    The Treaty of Paris

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    The Treaty of Paris officially ended  the Revolution between the British and the Americans. 80,000 British die during the war. The British people were angry because some of their family members died.They had to pay high taxes during the seven year war. In 1782, Benjamin Franklin made an appealing negotiation terms with the Frensh.  Britain recognized the independence of the United States with generous boundaries to the Mississippi River but retained Canada. Access to the Newfoundland fisheries was guaranteed to Americans, and navigation of the Mississippi was to be open to both Great Britain and the United States.Dutch possessions in the East Indies, captured in 1781, were returned by Britain to the Netherlands in exchange for trading privileges in the Dutch East Indies.The Treaty of Paris, formally ending the war, was not signed until September 3, 1783. The Continental Congress, which was temporarily situated in Annapolis, Maryland, at the time, ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784.This treaty constrained the relations with the Frensh. The Frensh wanted to controlled the peace made between the British and Americans.Declares the treaty to be in the name of the most holy and undivided Trinity.In the treaty is also proclamed United States will prevent future fights of the property of Loyalists.The British and American will have access to the Mississippi River.

    The Final Battle -Yorktown

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    The fight between the British and the colonists grew fiercer as time pass by. Battles were won in both sides. Many English and Americans lost their lives. Eight years of war were hard on both sides. It was particularly hard on the British. They were not on their own home. This was a strange land for them.
    Sir William Howe resigned as commander of the British troops in the colonies. He was tired of the criticism he was receiving for his leadership. General Henry Clinton replaced him. Clinton believed he would be able to inflict a final defeat on the colonists by moving his troops to the South. He thought he would find more colonists loyal to the British. If he were to take control of the southern colonies, he would be able to crush an entire war. He appointed Lord Charles Cornwallis to lead his troops in the southern colonies. He remained in New York with a small force and put the rest of the British soldiers aboard ships sailing to Georgia.

    Lord Cornwallis and his troops first took over Savannah, Georgia. He declared all of Georgia to be in British hands. Then they headed to Camden, South Carolina. It was an intense battle, but the British won. Believing that the war was finally going in their favor the British marched to Virginia. They made camp in Yorktown. Yorktown was on the York River near the very important Chesapeake Bay. General Clinton promise to send more troops by ship to meet them there.

    While Cornwallis was fighting his way back north, General George Washington was making plans with his French allies. General Rochambeau and Washington discuss the possibility of attacking New York. They decide that that would be a wise move at the time. During their discussion they got word of Lord Lafayette that made their decision easier. Lafayette told them that other French officer, Admiral de Grasse, was sailing from the West Indies to the Chesapeake Bay with a fleet of 28 ships. A plan to attack to stop the British in their tracks was soon created.

     Admiral de Grasse was told to take his fleet and position them in Chesapeake Bay mouth of the York River.  From this point they would be able to keep new British troops from joining Cornwallis. It would also keep Cornwallis from leaving the area by ship. In the meantime, Washington, Rochambeau, and a combined French and American force of over 14,000 men marched toward Yorktown. When they got there, they formed a semi-circle around Yorktown. On October 14, 1781, the British troops awoke to the sight of revolutionary forces surrounding them. Cornwallis tried everything he could think of to get out of the situation. He even sent soldiers infected with small pox from his camp into the lines of colonial soldiers. He tried to escape by taking his soldiers by boat across the York River, but a storm put a stop to his attempt.

    On October 17, Cornwallis sent a drummer boy and a soldier with a white flag to Washington to offer to surrender.  On October 19, the official papers of surrender were signed.

    George Washington

    viernes, 18 de marzo de 2011

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    File:George Washington by Gilbert Stuart Yale University Art Gallery portrait.jpegThe first president of the United States, George Washington, is often referred to as the Father of Our Country. He was known for his love of the land and farming, and his dislike of war. He was a distinguished general and commander in chief of the colonial armies in the American Revolution. He married a widow, Martha Dandridge Custis, and they lived at Mount Vernon, Washington's plantation in Virginia on the Potomac River.When the Second Continental Congress was made in Philadelphia in May 1775, Washington, one of the Virginia delegates, was elected Commander in Chief of the Continental Army. On July 3, 1775, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, he took command of his ill-trained troops.
    Washington longed to retire to his fields at Mount Vernon. But he soon realized that the Nation under its Articles of Confederation was not functioning well, so he became a prime mover in the steps leading to the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia in 1787. When the new Constitution was ratified, the Electoral College unanimously elected Washington President.
    Today, Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States. He appears on contemporary currency, including the one-dollar bill and the quarter coin, and on U.S. postage stamps. Along with appearing on the first postage stamps issued by the U.S. Post Office in 1847, Washington, together with Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, and Lincoln, is depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial. The Washington Monument, one of the most well known American landmarks, was built in his honor.

    Battle of Saratoga

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    The British wanted to take control of the Hudson River Valley to cut off New England from the other colonies. General Burgoyne with 7,700 troops approached Albany, New York, from Canada. On his way, Burgoyne defeated American forces at Fort Ticonderoga. Another group of troops, led by Lieutenant Colonel St. Leger, were to join him from Canada. General Howe also was to join him from New York. Together they were to attack the American troops. Unfortunately for Burgoyne, St. Leger's troops ran into Benedict Arnold and his American militia. St. Leger and his troops were forced to retreat


    back to Canada. Even worse, General Howe's forces were fighting with Washington at the Battle of Brandywine and then the Battle of Germantown. This kept him from joining Burgoyne.
    General Burgoyne's forces attacked General Gates' American forces at the Battle of Oriskany, but he was driven back. He attacked again at the Battle of Bennington, and was again driven back.
    The British wanted to take control the Hudson River Valley and the New England colonies. General Burgoyne with his 7700 men were marching toward New York from Canada.On his way, Burgoyne defeated American forces at Fort Ticonderoga. Another group of troops, led by Lieutenant Colonel St. Leger, were to join him. General Howe also was to join him from New York. Together they were to attack the American troops.
     Unfortunately Leger´s army was forced to retreat to Canada. Even worse, General Howe's forces were fighting with Washington at the Battle of Brandywine and then the Battle of Germantown. This kept him from joining Burgoyne.General Burgoyne's forces attacked General Gates' American forces at the Battle of Oriskany, but he was driven back. He attacked again at the Battle of Bennington, and was again driven back. General Burgoyne attacked for the third time at the Battle of Saratoga. This time Burgoyne and his forces were defeated. General Burgoyne was forced to surrender.
    This was a major victory for the American forces and a key turning point in the war. This give strenght and happinness to the Patriots. These demonstrated Patriots could have a chance to win the war.

    Valley Forge

    miércoles, 16 de marzo de 2011

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    Valley Forge was the crucial point of the Revolutionary War. It was here that the Continental army fought in Valley Forge desperately against the cold and hunger during a harsh winter in December 1777. The Continental Army arrived at Valley Forge on December 19, 1777, after a tough campaign of battles with the British. The future promised them only more desperation and starvation. Some couldn't take the cold and hunger any longer. To protect from snow storms and low temperatures soldiers began making more than a thousand huts of wood to provide shelter. Disease debilitated them and death came in. Typhus, typhoid, dysentery, and pneumonia killed 2,000 men that had been sent from camp to hospitals established in the surrounding countryside during the winter of 1777-1778. The Marquis de Lafayette wrote: "The unfortunate soldiers were in want of everything; they had neither coats nor hats, nor shirts, nor shoes. Their feet and their legs froze until they were black, and it was often necessary to amputate them." George Washington was the commander of the army. In December 23, 1777, he reported to the Continental Congress that nearly 1/3 of the 10,000 soldiers had neither coats nor shoes and that his army will disperse or dissolve. Women, relatives of enlisted men, alleviated some of the suffering by providing valuable services such as laundry and nursing that the army desperately needed. Long marches had destroyed the men's shoes. Blankets were scarce. General Washington also was having a tough time getting support from Congress.  In March, General Nathanael Greene was appointed head of the dismal Commissary Department and food and supplies started to come in. By April, Baron von Steuben, a German voluntary began to transform and improve the troops into a fighting force.  This sacrifices and perseverance of the Continental Army is a great example of how adversity during extraordinary times can be imposed with courage. Washington, his men had won a decisive victory; a victory not of weapons but of will. Most important, it was at Valley Forge that a vigorous, strategy  training regime transformed amateur troops into a confident 18th century military organization capable of beating the Red Coats in battle.

    Thomas Jefferson

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    Thomas Jefferson was born in spring of 1743in Virginia. His father Peter Jefferson was a successful planter and surveyor and his mother Jane Randolph a member of one of Virginia's most distinguished families. He married Martha Wayles Skelton, with whom he lived happily for ten years until her death. Their marriage produced six children, but only two survived to adulthood. Jefferson was sometimes called a renaissance man in early America. He could speak five different languages and was able to read two others. He was a lawyer, author, musician, inventor, and scientist. He studied farming and was an expert on growing all kinds of plants.  Jefferson started his studies of Greek, Latin, and French languages when he was only nine years old. He began his studies at William and Mary College when he was sixteen. As a student at the college Williamsburg, he was able to see all the changes that were being debated in their colonies. He was taken to the House of Burgesses the day Patrick Henry said his famous “Give me liberty, or give me death”. It was here that Thomas Jefferson desire for freedom began. He wasn’t an orator who could move people with his words so he used his wisdom and talent with written paper to make his point. While he was a member of the House of Burgesses, he wrote many papers to support freedom and attended committees. In 1775, he replaced Payton Randolph at the meeting of the Continental Congress. Some papers he wrote while he was in the Congress were about the rights of British citizens in the colonies. These papers were published throughout the colonies and even got to England. In 1776, he was asked to write all his thoughts and desires of the colonists concerning freedom. His work was changed a little bit by James Madison and Benjamin Franklin. Jefferson was not happy with the changes. In July 4, 1776, his work became The Declaration of Independence. He became Virginia’s governor. He was sent to France with Benjamin Franklin and John Adams to secure their support in the war against England. After Revolutionary War ended he was appointed Secretary of State by George Washington the first President of the United States. After this he ran himself for president but was defeated by John Adams. So he became the vice-president. They didn’t agreed with their thoughts and hardly spoke each other. In 1801 he ran for president again and this time he won. He changed the way the president was elected and purchased the land west of the Mississippi River. Jefferson began the University of Virginia and the Library of Congress. He lived until July 4, 1826.

    Loyalists and Patriots

    viernes, 25 de febrero de 2011

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    We know that Patriots fought against Great Britain but we almost don´t hear about the Loyalists. The Loyalists were people who had close relatives in England, depended financially from the crown or they thought the King was justified in their actions.Most of them were wealthy and honorable. Neutralists were those who either didn't want to fight, lived too far away to fight, or believed in both Loyalist and Patriot principles. German hired soldiers called Hessians were paid by the British government or Parliament to go and fight on the British side. The Patriots wanted to boycott the British because they had to high taxes without any representation in the  Parliament.The British controlled the colonists and told what countries they can trade or not.All these anger the colonists who wanted revenge.

    The Second Continental Congress

    jueves, 24 de febrero de 2011

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    Throughout New England, minute men were confining the Redcoats while the Provincional Congress controled the colonists actions. Some loyalist fled out of Boston because of the current situation. Would the other colonies help them and fight against the British troops?

    The answer for this question came in May 1775, when delegates of the thirteen colonies assembled in Philadelphia for the second Continental Congress. They decided to get the responsibility for the war. Armed volunteers from the Middle and Southern Colonies marched north to join the patriots that seized British troops in Boston. All these militia was called New Continental Army.  The Continental Congress gave this army to George Washington so that he could lead it. Some radical members of the Continental Congress wanted to declare independence from Britain. Some thought they were not ready yet to make such step. Most of the colonists wanted to be part of Britain all they ask for was to have representation in the Parliament. In July 1775, after three months of violent wars the Continental Congress sent an “Olive Branch Petition” to the King, which he obviously rejected and instead of making peace he sent even more armed British troops.

    Lexington and Concord

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    War errupted at Lexington and Concord in April 19,1775. These were two country towns west of Boston. Gage provoke the war by sendig British troops to arrest Hancock and Adams and order to seized the weapons and amunitions the patriots were hiding. British troops had occupied Boston and were marching on Concord as they passed through Lexington. When the British troops were on their way Paul Revere and other man heard their plans and decided to warn the local patriots. By the morning about 70 militia men were gather at Lexington Green. As the the "Redcoats"marched down town they order the     patriots to go home. As they did so, some one shot his gun. Both sides opened fire, and the Americans were forced to withdraw. When the shooting stopped 8 patriots laid dead. But they had slowed the British advance. No one is still sure who fired first, but it was the "Shot Heard 'Round the World." 

     By the time the Redcoats got to Concord, the minutemen were waiting them to attack. The weapons depot was saved, and the British were forced to retreatand go back to Boston. The skirmishes were preceded by Paul Revere's famous ride, warning the countryside: "The British are Coming!"

    Intolerable Acts

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     The Intolerable Acts were punishments imposed by the King George III. The Boston Tea Party anger the Parliament and later they passed the Coercive Acts.The Intolerable Acts consisted of:
    -Boston Port Act: this act closed the port to trade with Britain and other important countries in the world.The harbor was closed and stores too. The consequences were huge and people were loosing their goods. Britain was boycotting the colonies in revenge of the event that happened in Dec.16,1773.
    -The Quartering Act: In 1775, a bill was passed called the Quartering Act. the colonists had to give shelter and food for the British troops. If they disobey ,they would be shot.
    -The Administration of Justice Act: British Officials could not be tried in colonial courts for crimes. They would be taken back to Britain and have a trial there. That left the British free to do whatever they wanted in the colonies and to the Colonists.
    -Stamp Act:The Sugar Act was repealed in 1766 and replaced with the Revenue Act of 1766  which reduced taxes to one penny per gallon on sugar.This occurred around the same time that the Stamp Act of 1765 was repealed.

    The Boston Tea Party

    jueves, 10 de febrero de 2011

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    King George and his advisor Lord Townshend needed to raise money to put into the dangerously low British coffers. After much discussion the king and Townshend with what they thought a brilliant idea. In the minds of the British, it was obvious that the colonists owed England for protection of soldiers, selling them supplies, and buying them the products produced in America. The colonies were the perfect place to go for needed cash. Taxing the some goods the colonist needed would be the perfect way to raise the money.  The British decide to tax glass, lead, paper, paint, and tea that were shipped to the colonies.

     The colonists were dissatisfied with the new taxes levied on them. That was taxation without representation in their minds. The colonial leaders called for a boycott to all the British goods. With this way they could send the crown a message telling them to drop the taxes. Their plan worked well at a point that all the taxes were repealed except the one in tea. They wanted all the taxes to be repealed, so they planning to make a very public way to convinced England.  

    In 1773, The Davison Newman Company of London sent a ship loaded with tea to Boston Harbor. A group of colonists disguised themselves as Indians and entered the ship. They broke the trunks holding the tea using tomahawks. After breaking 342 trunks, they threw the tea into Boston Harbor. The king and Parliament were angry. This act of disobedience made them do what they called the Coercive Acts. The stage had been set the colonists were not giving up their freedom and the British were not accepting insolence.

    The Boston Massacre

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    In early to mid 1700’s British law was the only law in the colonies. To make sure the rules were followed, the king sent British 4,000 soldier troops to be stationed in the larger colonial cities. The king said the soldiers were to protect them, but most colonists thought they were there to keep them obey the rules. In 1765, Parliament passed the Quarter that made the colonist to give housing to the soldiers. The colonists were not particularly happy with this new law, neither the soldiers because of their assignments in the new world. The soldier’s pays were poor so they decided to get other jobs apart from the one they already had. This caused problems for the colonist to find their own job. The jobs the colonist got were usually very unpleasant, like cleaning stables or burying garbage.


    One night of March 5, 1770, colonists began complaining about the soldiers and they felt angry for the jobs that were taken by them. An angry mob of colonists threw snowballs and rocks to a group of soldiers standing in a public house in Boston. Although the soldiers couldn’t shot to any colonist they felt so threatened that they fired the loud mob. When peace was restored five colonists lay dead on the snow. These soldiers were arrested and charged with murder by colonial officers.

    The Boston colonists were horrified with such massacre had taken place in their city. They wanted justice for what had happened in Boston. John Adams thought the colonists were not going to treat fairly in the trial. He offered himself as the attorney of the charged soldiers. He made all the soldiers except for two to dismiss all their charges. These two soldiers were branded on their thumbs so that everybody knew they had committed a crime.

    Patriots Leaders Emerge

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    Colonists violently attack the Stamp Act. Those who opposed the British taxes were called Patriots.In the streets, people were showing interest in politics to form an association called ¨Sons of Liberty.¨This association were included cobblers,artesans,merchants,etc.Their most effective work was performed in newsprint. Many of the Sons were printers and publishers themselves.The groups also applied pressure to any merchant who wanted to import British goods.

    In August 1765, a mob lead by the ¨Sons of Liberty´´destroyed the house and office of a tax collector.No one supported the Stamp Act. At the end of the year there were no more stamp collectors. One famous leader was Samuel Adams.Samuel Adams was born in Boston, Massachusetts on September 27, 1722.. He was a leader of the fight against British colonial rule, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Adams was a cousin of John Adams who became the second President of the United States.

    Taxation Without Representation

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    Taxation without representation is a situation in which the government levy (an imposing of collecting taxes by an authority) without an agreement with the people.On March 1765,Parliament passed a bill intended to raise money from the colonists called the Stamp Act.The Stamp Act required taxes on newspapers,books,court documents,contracts and land deeds.This was the first bill imposed by the colonists.These happened with England and the thirteen colonies.

    The colonists wanted an actual representation meaning a representative voting on the Parliament.The colonists arguments really puzzled the British.They claimed the colonists as selfish.Parliament thought they can levy taxes anywhere in the empire.The King of England got mad and sent some soldiers over to America.One of the soldiers accidentally shot a colonist and this caused the Boston Massacre.

    Differences in Colonial Government

    jueves, 27 de enero de 2011

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    Despite the similarities, the colonial and British government were different. The British didn`t had a legal constitution and had a collection of laws and traditions through centuries. The colonists had a legal constitution like a royal charter and the Massachusets Compact. In the colonies 2/3 of free colonial white men were able to vote. By 1760, political upheaval had allowed the elected colonial assembly to gain power.The assembly most of the time manipulated the governors. The Brits would raise taxes to pay the governor and judges. These alarmed the colonists.Members of parliament believed they represented every British and colonists. 
    The colonists saw themselves as equal in the British political government. These differences became a problem when levied taxes were imposed. The colonists believed that only their own elected officials had the right to levied taxes.

    The Seven Year War

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    The 7 Year War was fought over the Ohio River Valley. This war was also called "The French and Indian War". It was called this way because they fought together against Great Britain. This war was originated for territorial disputes.  Both the British and the French claimed the land west of the Appalachian Mountains. The commander of the British troops was George Washington. This war was spread throughout Europe and Asia. In the first years of war (1756-1757) the French and Indian took control. French destroy British forts at Lake Ontario and Lake George. Indians allied raids in the Brtish settlements at the frtontiers of Pennsylvania and Virginia.  

    During the years 1758-1759 the war shifted in favor of the British. The British blocked the French's trading routes. In result the French were weakened and indians left them because they weren't recieving what they were promise. British were able to capture forts in the St. Lawrence River and Quebec in 1759. After capturing Quebec they march on down the river and capture Montreal in 1760. 

    The British forced the French general governor to surrender the rest of Canada, forts around The Great Lakes, and part of Florida. In 1763 The Treaty of Paris was signed stating that the war was over. This favor the British making the Mississippi River their's. Some French and Spaniards claimed for the posession of land.